Indian Writing in English_Narrative style of Raja Rao in Kanthapura

M.K.BHAVNAGAR

UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

NAME    : -Parmar Milankumar L.

ROLL NO    : -16

ENROLLMENT NO: - 14101026

SEMESTER : -  1-^st

COURSE NAME:- Indian Writing in English

ASSIGNMENT TOPIC:-Narrative Style in Kanthapura                  

SUBMITTED TO : -           Department of English

                                             Smt.S.B.Gardi
                                             M.K.B.University

Different Narrative styles: -

According to R.J. Rees there are four different styles of writing novels they are as below.

1). Plain narrative style: - plain narrative style or story telling is the most usual method. In this the novelist is an omniscient person who can describe action of his character and their thoughts and feeling, a novelist writing as though he knew everything. Galsworthy’s “In chancery” is an example of this method.

2). “I” pattern novel: - in some novel the technique ‘I’ autobiography is used. This pattern is used where the story is told in first person by narrator who refers to him or herself as ‘I’. Using this method, a writer may make his story more realistic and more credible. In David Copperfield, Dickens can only show as the world through David’s eye.

3). Narration by letter: - sometimes a novelist chooses to tell story through a series of letters. The disadvantage is that it is difficult to write a number of different styles of letter written by different characters “Richardson’s Pamela & Clarissa Harlowe” are the example of this method.

4). Conversation:- The novel must have conversation. Modern novels have more conversation than narrative. Frequency of passage of conversation makes the book.

Introduction of the writer:-

Raja Rao was born on November 8, 1908 in Hassan, in the state of Mysore in south India, into a well-known Brahman family. His native language was Kanarese, but his post-graduation study was in France, and all his publications in book form were in English. He lived in France from 1908n to 1939, and returned to India in 1940, after the second world war. Kanthapura was his first novel in English. His other novels are “The Cow of the Barricades, Great Indian Way: A Life of Mahatma Gandhi, A Passage to India, The Serpent and the Rope, Cat and Shakespeare, The Chess master and His Moves”.

Ø Narrative style of Raja Rao in ‘Kanthapura’: -

                   The success of any literary artist lies not only in his ideas but also in his expression. The style reveals the nature and the intention of the writer. It is righty said that ‘style is man’ means man is recognize by his style. In literature by reading the text of any writer we can assume his character and his intellectual power. Style reveals the author himself. Style differs from person to person. So it’s necessary to notice and analyze the literary technique used by writer.

Raja Rao’s Narrative Style In Kanthpura: -

In preface of Kanthapura he observes that “the telling has not been easy, he had to convey in a language that is not one’s own the spirit is one’s own.” He uses it in Kanthapura and all other novel, he has tried to give expression to the thought and the feeling, the culture and ideology of Indians in English.

Old Puranic Style:-

Raja Rao used the ancient Puranic method of storytelling rather than follows the western style, according to him puranic method of storytelling is natural and true to nature and true to the atmosphere of India, which gives it Indian ness to the novel. Kanthapura is third person narrative novel. Kanthpura is narrated by old woman Achkka. As Rao has told in his preface the story is told in oral tradition of storytelling without any break. He says in preface to Kanthapura

“we, in India think quickly, we talk quickly, and when we move, we move quickly, we have neither punctuation nor the treacherous ‘ats’ and ‘ons’…. Episodes follows episodes, and when our thought stop, our breath stops, and we move on to another thought”

          Western style method of chapter division is not followed and it is one continues tale. The long sentence shows flow of thought. This technique is used here in the present novel. In this novel the narrator talks to the reader for example in the very opening of Kanthapura Achakka says following lines

“our village- I don’t think you have ever heard about it Kanthapura is its name and it is the province of Kara. High Ghats, is it , high up the steep mountains, that face the cool Arabian seas, up the Malabar coast is it, up Mangalore and Puttur and many a center of cardamom and coffee, rise and sugarcane. Roads, narrow rut covered roads, wind through the forest of teak and jack of sandal and Sal, and hanging over bellowing gorges and leaping over elephant haunted valleys, they turn now to the left and now to the right and bring you through the Alambe, Champa and Meena and kola passes in to the great granaries of trade. There , on the blue waters they say our carted our cardamom and coffee gat in to the ship, the red men bring, and , so they say, they go across the seven oceans in to the countries where our rulers live ”.

In many of his stories also this method is used. This narrative method helps him to go in friendly conversational style and also to present freely the reflection of the narrator.

In his narrative style we see appropriateness of language. He uses language of all people. He brings out difference of language used by Educated, uneducated, old, young, even by man and woman. The narrator Achakka is very old age women who tells the story to her grand-children, she uses old religious word and language, that who doesn’t know about Indian myth and religion could not understand easily some words, he will find difficulties in understanding it. The Moorthy is young and educated man in village, and talks about the Gandhian thoughts idealism, and movement. Even the language used by women in village is also differs from man. They usually talk about house hold matters and about clothing and saris, which sari will she wears to go in katha.

           

This narrative method has given the writer ample opportunity for portraying character by representing various moods, and conflict, and spiritual, inward of the character. This appropriateness of style one can notice in Raja Ra. Even in Indianized English he brings out the difference in the language used by educated, uneducated, young and old. In the Kanthapura Achakka used such a language that is typical of an old woman. She expresses her feelings without any inhibition;

“If rain come not, you fall at her feet and say Kanchmma, goddess,

You are not kind to us. Our fields are full of youngliness and you have given us no water.

Tell us Kanchmma why do you seek to make our stomachs burn”

                        In the same novel he distinguishes the style of Harikatha man and Moorthy and many others from that of Achakka. Moorthy’s conversation would be good illustration. While explaining to Nanjamma about the advantage of spinning he says;

“it is yours sister, and every month, I shall come to you how many yard you have spun. And every month i shall gather your yarn send it to city. And city people reduce you for the cotton charges and for rest, you have your cloth”.

In the Indian socio-cultural context as in many others, the speaker normally addresses the listener as brother, mother, and sister or with some other term in social discourse. In many of the words languages including Indian languages “uncle, aunt, older brother, older sister etc. are appropriate terms of address in ordinary circumstances for familiar person as well as strangers older than one self.”

                       

 In Raja Rao especially in Kanthapura, the narrative is straight forward, and he uses flashback technique. Achakka tells the story to her grand-children, of her past in what kind of situation she passes through. She told story in different manner, sometimes while telling story she forgets the name of mythical characters, and confused between Shiv and Brahma, and Vishnu. She sometimes forget the story and then come back in present, and when she remembers she went back to past. The thing which we should note that she tell her children the story of Ram, of Shiva, of Vishnu, of Krishna. And then come back to the present time she compares the mythical character with present time of India in which she lives.

Raja Rao had written the novel in the three-stand point: political, religious and social. To the peasant, Kenchamma is goddess, benign and bounteous.

In Political stand point Rao presented the prevailing condition, especially the Gandhian dis-obedient movement. The hierarchy system, in which Brahmins were most privilege group. And the village ruled by them, they get better scope to get good place in the village. 

 Religious background:-

The Village has a people who have strong rigid and orthodox background of religion. The Brahmin is upper cast of society. In the Kanthapura people are ignorant, poor and superstitious, but they are also deeply religious. They were faith in Goodness ‘Kenchamaa’. She is in the center of the village. Marriage, sickness, death, ploughing, harvesting, arrest, release all are watched by Kenchamma. They may be small pox or influence around but you make vow to the Goodness, the next morning, you walked and you find the fever has left you. There is a also temple of Kanthapurishwari.

Kenchamma, Kenchamma

Goddess benign, and bounteous,

Mother of earth, blood off life,

Harvest- queen-rain, crowned,

Kenchamma, Kenchamma

Goddess benign and bounteous……

If we see the social background, we find that the condition of Dalits, Parihar, and women is very poor in the village. They have very little space in the daily life. There was a cast system of vivid communities. These Dalits, Parihar and women are suppressed due to this cast system. The cast system is divided in four parts as under.

1)    Brahmin

2)    Parihar

3)    Potter

4) Weaver

 Raja Rao’s use of Myth:-

Raja Rao has used old story telling style. His use of myth makes it different from others. The use of myth is not new style of writing English writer like James Joyce and T.S. Eliot used myth in their work. Here in Kanthapura Rao used different myths from Indian epic Mahabharata, and Ramayana, which makes its narrative simple to understand for the Indian reader. Here for the progression of the story and narrator is an old woman so it’s inevitable that mythical character would not creep in. in a way to make it interesting Raja Rao has used myths. The myths he used are of Kenchamma, Rama, Shiva, Krishna etc.

The first myth is myth of goddess Kenchamma, she is the bread giver, rain giver, and their life giver and preserver. The villagers sing her charms and hymn

“Kenchamma, Kenchamma,

Goddess benign and bounteous

Mother of earth, blood of life,

Harvest-queen, rain- crowned

Kenchamma, Kenchamma

Goddess benign and bounteous”

Even when if there is any disease spread over the village the women pray her and disease vanished

“There may be smallpox or influence around you but you make a vow to goddess, the next morning you wake up and you find fever has left you”.

Another example is:

                        “she called ages, ages ago, a demon that had come to ask our sons as food and our young women as wives. Kanchmma came from heavens….and she waged such a battle and she fought so many a night that the blood soaked and soaked into the earth, and that is why the Kenchamma Hill is all red. if not, tell me sister, why it should be red only from the Tippur stream upward , for a foot down on the other side of the stream you have mud brown, but never red ?Tell me, how could this happen, if it were not for Kenchamma and her battle? Thank heaven, not did she slay the demon, but she even settled down among us, and this much I shall say never has she failed us in our grief.”

   Another myth is myth of lord Krishna Achakka compares Gandhi as Krishna and red men as Kans. When Hari-katha man says

“you remember how Krishna when he was but a babe of

Four, had begun to fight against demons and had killed

The serpent kali. So too our Mohandas begun to fight

Against the enemies of the country”

The third myth used by him was of lord Rama, for the grandmother in Kanthapura Swaraj is Sita, Mahatma is Ram, And Nehru is brother Bharat.

“he will bring us Swaraj; the Mahatma. And we shall be all

Happy, and Rama will come back from exile and sita will

Be with him, for ravan will be slain and sita freed, and

He will come back with sita on his right in chariot of the

Air and brother Bharata will go to meet them with the

Worshipped Sandal of the master on his head and they

Enter Ayodhya, there will be the rain of flower.”

For grandmother Gandhi Is Invisible god and Moorthy is the visible avtar. So, she was dreams about independence and it will be given by Mahatma. So Kanthapura is of puranic structure and brings characters from that to describe present time.

Another distinguished narrative quality of Kanthapura is Indianized English language: Raja Rao variously tried to Indianized language, he tried to make it more easy to express his feelings and certain thoughts. By number of ways he modified and mold language to get desired effect. He has translated the native similes and metaphors, idioms, and culture specific phrases that we use in our daily language or in vernacular language. Here for example;

“well when you have drunk the Himavati waters, you can’t ever look different.”

“Moorthy is holly bull, elephant and cow.”

For the various religious ceremony and rituals, he translated the word without think much upon it the words like; hair-cutting ceremony, rice-eating ceremony, marriage ceremony and death ceremony, etc.

The use of adjectives: - the adjectives we use in our vernacular gives some effects, and native feeling to the language. some examples are “coffee planter Ramayya, fig tree, house people, corner-house Moorthy and cart-wheel Sivarama. By using word associated with Indian culture, like the names of the food, festivals, places, functions, etc. “He has infused tempo of Indian life in to English expression”. Karthik, Harikath, Sankara, Jayanthy, Payasama, Mayavada are few examples of Indian spirit.

Ø Conclusion:-

The novel starts with simple narration by an old woman about one of the village in India, later it evolves to entire India. The narration starts as tale is told to children by their grandmother as it is the Indian tradition. Raja Rao has combined the myth and Gandhian Movement very harmoniously, he use Hindu epic myth for authentication of his work by putting myth in novel he easily achieved his goal. Not only the use of myth makes it popular but, his intellectual power, his imaginative power, his ability to use and utilize the Indian words, and it’s his knowledge of Indian culture and people.

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Literary theory and criticism- Wordsworth's views on poet and poetry

         M.K.BHAVNAGAR UNIVERSITY

               DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

NAME                             :- Parmar Milankumar L.

ROLL NO                       :- 16

ENROLLMENT NO     :- 14101026

SEMESTER                   :-  1^st

COURSE NAME          :-  Literary theory and criticism

ASSIGNMENT TOPIC:-  Wordsworth’s definition of

                                             Poet and poetry

SUBMITTED TO          :-  Department of English

                                             Smt.S.B.Gardi
                                             M.K.B.University

Ø Introduction Of The Writer:-

William Wordsworth the greatest among all romantic poets was born on 7^th April, 1770 at Cekermouth, in Lake District. He studied at Cambridge and completed his graduation there. His first published work was ‘The Lyrical Ballads’ (1798).

                        The preface to the lyrical ballad was perhaps more remarkable than the poem themselves, for in the preface to lyrical ballads, in the preface the theory of new poetry of the Romantic age was laid down with great details leaving no scope for the ambiguity and doubt. It was in the Preface to The Lyrical Ballads Wordsworth made bold and categorical statement regarding the nature of the poetry, the function of the poetry, and the role of the poet as creative artist. Wordsworth stated that” the poetry is the breath and finer spirit of all knowledge”. And poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings, taking its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility’. The qualifications of the poet are laid down in his conformity of his art. To Wordsworth he is man possessed of more than usual organic sensibility and one who has also “thought long and deeply.”

Ø His Reaction Against 18^th century poetic:-

                                Every genius is rebel and so was Wordsworth. He protested against the traditions and usages setup by the poets of the pseudo classical school of during the eighteenth century. In 1798 he came forward with a new theory of man, a new theory of poetic nature, and a new theory of poetry. He put forward his theory of poetic diction in the “Preface to The Lyrical Ballads” and his views about the language that was to be employed in poetry raise a storm of protest against him even by such a close associate as Coleridge. In this he simply emphasized the use of the simpler language well within the reach of cottagers, and shepherds about whom he was composing poems. Poetry now coming out the narrow groves of town life and was embracing the life of the nature and humanity in its simplest and most unsophisticated forms. Wordsworth rightly felt that for the new poetry of new age, a language is needed and what he honestly expressed in the preface to The Lyrical Ballads.  His entire effort in renovating the language of poetry was guided by that feeling that “all conventions of pedantry must be discarded in order to evolve the true poetic style, which should not only be simple and unaffected but should possess the power and the truth of feeling.” With these ideas in his mind Wordsworth formulated his theory of poetic diction, in his preface to ‘The lyrical ballads.’

Ø  Preface to the Lyrical Ballads:-

                        In preface to the second edition of the Lyrical Ballads (1802) Wordsworth set out his theory of poetry. We find a sustained exposition of Wordsworth’s general theory of poetry as well as his opinions about (1) subject matter (2) style of poetry, (3) and of poet in the Preface. Entire poetic theory of Wordsworth centers round the examination of the origin, nature, and the purpose of the poetry, together with a probe into the subject matter and style of poetry.

Definition of the Poetry:-

                        According to Wordsworth the poetry is “all good poetry is spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings” and further he says “though this be true, poems to which and value can be attached were never produced on any variety of subject but by a man who, being possessed of more than usual organic sensibility, has also ”thought long and deeply.”

                        By above two statements brings out certain points for our consideration. First poetry is spontaneous and it cannot be made to order. Poetry cannot be composed under duress nor can the poet be forced to write at the spur of an opportune moment. Poetry is a matter of feeling and mood. When the poetic mood is on the poet, he sings out songs of rapture or sorrow spontaneously from the core of his heart. In poetic mood poetry flows naturally from the poet’s heart. His language of discourse in such moments becomes the language of poetical inspiration. In short Wordsworth emphasizes the basic fact of poetic creation when he say “ the poetry is spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings, the clear springs of poetry must flow freely and spontaneously- it cannot be made to flow through artificially laid pipes” from this observation flows the next that poetry is essentially a matter of “ expressing powerful feeling” felt in the heart and not generated in the mind. Poetry takes its birth in this spring of the heart and not in the cold store of the intellect. Poetry is connected with the feelings all of us feel but the poet feels intensely and deeply than most people and, that is why he is able to express his feelings more touchingly in poetic language than most people can do. Poet’s heart leaps up when he beholds rainbow, a red rose, a white dove and pure lily. He is stirred to emotion at the sight of beautiful things and the heightened emotional state of the poet finds expression through his verses. Thus according to Wordsworth deep emotion is the fundamental condition of the poetry. Without emotion and powerful feelings poetry cannot be written. The third conclusion that follows Wordsworth’s later observation is that” sensibility alone is not sufficient to ensure good poetry it must be directed by a calm mind.” Wordsworth arrives at the conclusion,” poetry is produced by man who being possessed of more than organic sensibility, had also thought long and deeply.”

                        Wordsworth says that “poetry takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility, Wordsworth explains role of calm thinking and deliberate contemplation in the composition of poetry later on in The Preface when he says “the emotion is contemplated till by a species of reaction, the tranquility gradually disappears and an emotion kindred to that which was before the subject of contemplation, is gradually produce and does itself actually exist in the world- mind in this mood successful composition begins, and in a mood similar to this is carried on”. The process of poetic composition is not an easy one. As above statement poetic composition has to pass through four stages: recollection, contemplation, recrudescence, and composition. All that Wordsworth seeks to emphasize in his theory that “poetry is emotion recollected in tranquility” is to quote the words of Herbert Read “that good poetry is never an immediate reaction to the provoking cause; that our sensation must be allowed time to sink back in to the common fund of our experience, there to found their level and due proportion. That level is found by them by the mind in the act of contemplation and then the process of contemplation the sensations review, and out of the union of the contemplating mind and receiving sensibility, rises that unique mood of expression which we call poetry.”

                        Wordsworth followed the above process of poetic composition he allows. He allowed the emotion to sink and reviewed them at a later stage in a state of tranquility, and composed his finest works that recollected state of tranquility. The Daffodils, Rainbow, Independence, Solitary reaper, etc. are examples of this.

                        One of the critic Mair says that ”life was series of impressions and the poets duty was to recapture those impressions to isolate them and brood over them, till gradually as result of his contemplation, emotions stirred again and emotion akin to the authentic thrill that had excited him when the impression was first bore in experience.

“for oft, when on my couch I lie in vacant or in pensive mood, they    flash upon that inward eye, which is the bliss of solitude.”     

Ø Poet according to Wordsworth:-

After defining the poetry, in the later part of Preface Wordsworth talks about poet and his qualifications. According to him to be a poet is rare privilege and a poet has noble mission to carry out in his life.

Ø  He is a man speaking to a man; a man, is true more enthusiasm and tenderness.

Ø  He has greater knowledge of human nature, and more comprehensive soul, than one supposed to be a common among mankind.

Ø  He is a man pleased with his own passions and volitions (wishes), and who rejoice more than other men in the spirit of life that is in him; delighting to contemplate similar volitions and passions as manifested in the goings on of the universe, and habitually bound to create them where he does not find them.

Ø  The poet has a greater degree of imaginative power than other men. He has power of looking from heaven to earth and earth to heaven. He can present absent things as if they were presented.

Ø  The insight of the poet is higher than other people. That is why a poet can create a new images and ideas and present them to us with images and symbols.

Ø  His responsibility is great because, what other can’t think or see he is present the incredible and invisible images to the readers

Ø  Elucidating Wordsworth’s observation about a poet J. c. Smith remarks in his book a ‘Study of Wordsworth’  “the poet is a man endowed with a more than usual capacity to perceive and feel and retrieve his perception and feelings in the presence of their objects. To be a great port, let us add, he must have thought long and deeply. In all this he differs from his fellow men only in degree: all men are able to perceive, feel and think in some measure, and many are able to even imagine.

                        “It is the last gift, the accomplishment of verses that distinguishes the articulate poet from other nature’s, even from other poetics nature the poet can communicate his experience, and communicate them in such a way as to give us pleasure.”

Ø The Function Of poetry:-

                                In Wordsworth’s opinion the function of the poetry is “is the breath and finer spirit of all knowledge, the impassioned expression that is in the countenance of all science.”

Ø  Poetry is the instrument for the progression of moral thoughts.

Ø  Poetry seeks to ennoble and edify.

Ø  To delight with some moral lesson.

                        In the other parts of the Preface to Lyrical ballad he gives his views about poetic diction, subject matter, about the theme of the poetry and the style and the language of the poetry very nicely.

Ø Conclusion:-

                                In short we can say that he wrote Preface to vindicate himself and his poetry from the harsh criticism of critics. In this way by writing Preface he gives new theory of poetry of romanticism, he changed the subject matter of the poetry and even expressed his views about the poet and poetry. His views all these are at some level very true to the time he lived. But we can’t accept his all concept about poetry now days. As nothing is static, these concepts also will go away as time passes.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                (1,824)

Renaissance literature- origin of English drama

                                   

              M.K.BHAVNAGAR UNIVERSITY

                DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

NAME                             :- Parmar Milankumar L.

ROLL NO                       :- 16

ENROLLMENT NO     :- 14101026

SEMESTER                  :-   1^st

COURSE NAME           :-  Renaissance Literature

ASSIGNMENT TOPIC :-Origin And Rise Of Drama In    

                                            England                  

SUBMITTED TO           :- Department of English

                                             Smt.S.B.Gardi
                                             M.K.B.University

vOrigin Of The Drama

vWhat is drama?

                   Drama is literary composition, which is performed by professional actors on stage for theatre, before an audience. It involves actions conflicts, and particular theme. Eye-catching make-up, facial expressions and body language of the artists are prominent features of a live performance. Although the art from exist in different countries, Drama in England deserves special mention, because some of the legendary dramatists, including William Shakespeare are associated with it. “

vDefinition of Drama:-

                   According to the Dryden Drama is “Just and lively image of human nature, it representing its passion and humors and changer of fortune to which it is subjected for the delight and instruction of mankind.” Though the definition of drama by Dryden was given much later but it justifies the drama so I quoted it here. 

vOrigin Of English Drama:-

Very early in the Christian centuries were the beginnings of the religious play in France. They appeared in England soon after Norman Conquest and in their amplified form there sacred drama were known as mystery and miracle plays. There plays represented the lives of the saints and scene from the Christ stories from an old testament associated with the coming Messiah. The earlier miracle in England was the ‘Ludus de Sancta Kathurian’ which was performed about the year 1100. Though miracle plays ere distinctly religious in character, yet they were not without fun and humor which was provided by realistic portrayal of character for example, the character of Noah’s quarrelsome wife, the tyrant herald and the devil.

vBackground and origin of English Drama

v Emergence:- 

The Romans introduced drama to England, during medieval period. A number of auditorium were constructed for the performance of the art form, when it came to the country, Murmur’s play associated with the Morris dance, became a popular form of street theatre during the period. The performance were based on old stories of saint George, Robin hood and Dragon, the artists moved from town to town, to perform these folk tales. They were given money and hospitality, in return for their performance. The mystery and morality play performed during medieval period at religion festivals, carried the Christian theme.

vContribution of Church in development of English drama:-       

It is rightly said that “the origins of drama have always been deeply rooted in the religious instinct of mankind”. Infect churches became cradle of English drama. In the middle age church had a significant role in the life of community.

                   In order to preach the ignorance mass people the clergy seemed eager to show them scriptural story in visible from during special festivals as in Christmas or faster. The services of the church were in Latin and few could understand them. 

                   During the 10^th century the Gospel stories being illustrated by the series of lively pictures in which the performers acted the story in the dumb shows and in the next agate spoke as well as acted the parts. The actors were monk, priests, choir boys in the service of the church. The plays were performed inside the church. After the Norman conquest in place of Latin, the liturgical play followed the French pattern and finally in the place of French, vernacular English was used as the language

After the conquest crowds became more interested and they started throng inside the church.as a result the churchyard opened and finally drama came to the open market place. The organization had begun to pass from ecclesial to lay hands.

The growing secularization the drama is reflected in an edict of 1220 forbidding clergy to take part in the plays.

vDevelopment of drama in various Stages :-

v Mystery And Miracle plays:- The early Miracle plays of England were divided into two classes: the first, given at Christmas, included all plays connected with the birth of Christ; the second, at Easter, included the plays relating to his death and triumph.  

                          Earliest species of the drama are known as Mystery and Miracles plays.it has long been the fashion to call the Biblical plays mystery and those dealing with saints lives Miracles. The division has come from France though this kind of plays were performed at church, gradually through the hands of notable cycles they come to the open market, all the cycles more or less took the materials from the episodes from old and new testaments. Their aim was to reveal to the common crowd the entire story of the humane world from the creation to the resurrection. The production of these plays rather crude. There was a very few scenery and the dramatic effect, the dramatic effect was mainly brought out by means of some symbols. The actors were almost amateur, but the audience was very responsive to the appeal of the play.

in England the Morality was a dreary kind of performance, like the allegorical poetry which preceded it. To enliven the audience the devil of the Miracle plays was introduced; and another lively personage called the Vice was the predecessor of our modern clown and jester. His business was to torment the "virtues" by mischievous pranks, and especially to make the devil's life a burden by beating him with a bladder or a wooden sword at every opportunity.

v Guilds and Cycles :-

From the clergy, control first passed to religious and social guilds and then to the trade guilds under the general control of the council of the town. The guilds were generally wealthy and out of rivalry become responsible for the production.

The four guilds were generally known as Chester cycle, York cycle, wake-field cycle and Coventry cycle. The name of the cycles derives from the name of the towns. Gradually the extension of cycles led to the evolution of the ambulatory (moveable) in which the play was performed on the two decked cart or pageant. The pageant consisted of one closed room, which served both as hell and a tiring room and second storey open to the sky   on which the action was performed.

For such outdoor formation only summer festivals were suitable. Most of the plays of the different cycle begun to attach themselves to the feast of Corpus Christi which fell in May or June when the weather was likely to be good and the hour of daylight were long.

                    Now, let’s discuss how much cycles did their best for the development of the drama with the help of their productions written by anonymous author.

vYork cycle:-

it consist of forty eight plays but , according to the record fifty one were acted they were performed from the fourteenth to sixteenth century, the plays were written in the northurian dialect. They had dramatic life and were on the whole reverent in the tone. The thing that is noticeable in _Cursor Mundi_, which, with the York and Wakefield cycles, belongs to the fourteenth century. At first the actors as well as the authors of the Miracles were the priests and their chosen assistants  the plays deal with creation of the world, fall of Lucifer, fall of man, Cain and Able, life of Christ , crucifixion.

vWakefield Cycle :-

simply known as the town plays. The plays were acted at Wood kirk near wake field. In all the plays the devil is a favorite character and the butt of every joke. The plays are entitled as Tawny hall in Lancashire. The cycle consists of thirty two plays. The most important play of this cycle is “shepherd’s” play which is supposed to be the first farce in English. The usual series of plays follows Noah, Abraham and Isaac, Jacob and Esau, Crucifixion, the visit of wise man, etc. here are some lines from shepherd’s play,

As I out rode this enderes (last) night,

Of three jolly shepherds I saw a sight,

And all about their fold a star shone bright;

They sang _terli terlow_,

So merryly the shepherds their pipes can blow.

Down from heaven, from heaven so high,

Of angels there came a great companye

With mirth, and joy, and great solemnitye;

They sang _terli terlow_,

So merryly the shepherds their pipes can blow.

These above lines are from shepherds play and was vary popular in that time.

vChaster Cycle :-

it consist of twenty five plays, they are more serious and didactic in purpose. The plays were acted by the trade companies of the city on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday in Whitsun weak from 1268 to 1577and again in 1600. Some important plays by this cycles are ‘the sacrifice of Isaac, fall of Lucifer, The Deluge, Balaam and ass, etc.

vThe Coventry cycle:-

it consist of forty two plays. All the forty two were not performed in one year. The custom was to perform the first 28 plays in one year and the remaining in the next year. The plays were acted at Coventry on festival of corpus christi.

vMorality plays:-

                    Basically nothing is exactly known regarding the transition of English drama from the mystery and miracles to the moralities. It is so named because of its association with some moral or ethical instruction. a morality is kind of allegorical plays.  The characters are the personified abstraction like mankind, mercy, justice, peace, vice, death, beauty, etc. the play is concentrated with the conflict between good and evil over the passion of human soul. It generally ends with the triumph of virtue and good the devil leaping into hell-mouth with Vice on his back. Like the Miracle plays, most of the old Moralities are of unknown date and Origin The remarkable morality plays are “Everyman, The castle of perseverance, "Pride of Life," "Hycke scorner,"  Tree estate. Etc.

vThe Interludes :-

the last predecessor of the regular drama in England was the interlude which flourished in the middle of the 16^th century. It had several distinguished points. (1) it was short play, that introduced real characters, usually of humble rank, such as citizens and friar.(2) there was an absent of allegorical figures, there was much broad farcical humor, often course and there were set scenes a new feature in the English drama.(3) it would be observed that the interlude was great advance upon the morality play. sometimes given by themselves(usually with music and singing) at banquets and entertainments where a little fun was wanted; and again slipped into a Miracle play to enliven the audience after a solemn scene.The interlude aimed at amusement and entertainment. The most notable interlude is John Haywood’s “the four p’s”

vThe four p’s:-

It is written in doggerel verse. It describes a lying match between a Paddler, a Palmer, and a Poticary. Each one makes a trial of their skill in that direction. The Poticary tells the story of his visits to purgatory and to hell to recover a lost soul. Finally the Palmer tells that he has travelled through many towns and cites throughout christen. He has seen five hundred thousand women yet in all the places he had never seen or heard of any women out of patience. Finally the Palmer is awarded the prize.

vThe Play of The Weather:-

Another interesting Interlude is called "The Play of the Weather." In this Jupiter and the gods assemble to listen to complaints about the weather and to reform abuses. Naturally everybody wants his own kind of weather. The climax is reached by a boy who announces that a boy's pleasure consists in two things, catching birds and throwing snowballs, and begs for the weather to be such that he can always do both. Jupiter decides that he will do just as he pleases about the weather, and everybody goes home satisfied. All these early plays were written, for the most part, in a mingling of prose and wretched doggerel, and add nothing to our literature. Other interludes are Johan, the play weather, the husband, etc.

vN. B. corpus Christi :-

It is great Roman Catholic festival. It became popular when the pop granted ‘pardon’ to the performance and threatened excommunication of those who should interfere with the performance. Corpus Christi play was ambulatory one where the performance on the stage which moved along the selected roads with the crowd assembled all along the rout. It gave birth to different types of expression to the religious themes from creation to the last judgment. In different wagons different scenes shown. Banner bearers road about in advance, reading about banners which announced the subject matter of the scene. Spectators were thronged in form nearby villages and thus the play flourished. The term came to be applied to any play which represents passion and resurrection at any date.

vClassical Influence Upon Drama:-

Influence of French literature upon English drama was notable. In the fifteenth century in order to increase interest of Latin the teachers were suggest their boys to perform the plays which they were studying or read as literature. The influence of Saneca over English tragedy is huge one. He was favorite author of that time and most of his tragedies were translated in English between 1559 to 1581.during that time the English dramatists were trying to cultivate their ideas of drama. This became a model before them  so they imitate it and started to write drama.

vArtistic Period of Drama (Renaissance Period) :-

The artistic period is the final stage in the development of English drama. The artistic is the final stage in the development of the English drama. It differs radically from the other two in that its chief purpose is not to point a moral but to represent human life as it is. The artistic drama may have purpose, no less than the Miracle play, but the motive is always subordinate to the chief end of representing life itself. The artistic drama developed during renaissance time or the great revival of interest in Latin literature.

vEarliest English Comedy:-

The first true play in English, with a regular plot, divided into acts and scenes, is probably the comedy, "Ralph Royster Doyster." It was written by Nicholas Udall, and probably he wrote for his boys a play. The story is of that of conceit top in love with widow, who is already engaged to another man. The importance of ‘Ralph Roister Doister’ in furnishing English play wrights a model of a clear construction of plot and natural dialogue, can hardly be overestimated. The next notable comedy, ‘Gamner Gurton’s Needal, was written by unidentified Mr S about(1560). It is the domestic comedy, a true bit of English realism, representing the life of the peasant class.

 An earliest edition of the play was printed in 1575; but a similar play called "Dyccon of Bedlam" was licensed in 1552, twelve years before Shakespeare's birth. To show the spirit and the metrical form of the play we give a fragment of the boy's description of the dullard Hodge trying to light a fire on the hearth from the cat's eyes, and another fragment of the old drinking song at the beginning of the second act.

v Earliest English Tragedy:-

Under tragedy the classical influence was even greater, it was under the influence of Seneca, the Latin play wright, that the first English tragedy ‘Gorboduc’ was written by Thomas Sackville and Thomas Nortan, it was first acted in 1562. It is remarkable not only as our first tragedy, but as the first play to be written in blank verse, the latter being most significant, since it started the drama into the style of verse best suited to the genius of English playwrights. The story of "Gorboduc" is taken from the early annals of Britain and recalls the story used by Shakespeare in King Lear.  This play is written in blank verse and has a chorus made up of four old men of Britain. In the words of moody and Lovett ”it is stately production, and deserve veneration as the first regular tragedy written in English. Its classical form had little influence upon the native drama, just struggling into consciousness of itself, but its Seneca horrors were repeated ad nauseam. the learned and popular tragedies of the next generation.

vPopular Drama and Dramatist:-

When we are talking about drama the first name comes in our mind is that of Shakespeare. He was great and most popular dramatist of his time, and even to the present time his popularity is the same. Except for Shakespeare there are some dramatists who contribute in the development and enrichment of drama in the early stage. The regular playwrights, Kyd, Nash, Lyly, Peele, Greene, and Marlowe, brought the English drama to the point where Shakespeare started to write drama by imitating them.  

vContribution of Renaissance Dramatist:-

1). Thomas Kyd's ‘Spanish Tragedy’ 1585 first gives us the drama, or rather the melodrama, of passion, copied by Marlowe and Shakespeare. This was the most popular of the early Elizabethan plays.

2).Robert Greene (1558?-1592) plays the chief part in the early development of romantic comedy, and gives us some excellent scenes of English country life in plays like Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay.

3).CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE (1564-1593)

Marlowe is one of the most suggestive figures of the English Renaissance, and the greatest of Shakespeare's predecessors. The glory of the Elizabethan drama dates from his ‘Tamburlaine’ (1587), wherein the whole restless temper of the age finds expression. Marlowe is famous for four dramas, now known as the Marlowesque or one-man type of tragedy. The four tragedies are; the Tamburlaine, dr. Faustus, The Jew of Malta. Marlowe's last play is ‘Edward II’ a tragic study of a king's weakness and misery.

4).William Shakespeare:-

                   Shakespeare is famous for his four tragedies, his comedies are also popular. His four tragedies are Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, Macbeth. His well-known comedies are, As you like it, Mid summers night dreams, Loves Labor Lost, Much Ado About nothing. His contribution to English is very huge.

v Conclusion:- in conclusion we can say that the drama comes to England from Greek by Romans. It had its origin in church and from there it flourished to its full height. After the renaissance it becomes most popular and highly developed form of literature and now English drama has its own identity.